Neurodiversity and neurodivergence“We have only just begun to discover the radical individuality of the brain.”

4 August 2025, by Claudia Sewig

Photo: University of Hamburg / Esfandiari

Prof. Dr. André Frank Zimpel focuses on learning and development in his work at the Faculty of Education at the University of Hamburg. He is heading the Zentrum für Neurodiversitätsforschung (Center for Neurodiversity Research, ZNDF).

People on the autism spectrum, with ADHD, or with epilepsy are neurodivergent. This means: Their brain functions differ significantly from what is defined as “normal” in our society today. Prof. Dr. André Frank Zimpel heads the Center for Neurodiversity Research at the University of Hamburg. In this interview he gives an overview of current knowledge.

The terms neurodiversity and neurodivergence are increasingly used and discussed. But what exactly do they mean?

You could translate them as neuronal, meaning “nervous” diversity or divergence. But this is of course rather unpoetic. That’s why I like to compare brains to snowflakes—they all look the same from a distance, but the microscope reveals they are all different. Neurodiversity is a scientific fact and applies to all people. Individuals are considered neurodivergent if their nervous system functions beyond everyday expectations, neurotypical standards, and neuronal norms.

Neurosciences have just entered a new phase of discovering the radical individuality of the human brain. By way of illustration: According to the latest count, we humans have 86 billion nerve cells. Each of these nerve cells makes 1,000 to 10,000 connections with other nerve cells, whereby each nerve cell alone is as complicated as an entire city. There are about as many nerve connections in one cubic millimeter of brain as there are stars in the Milky Way. It is thus impossible for 2 people to have the same brain. Even identical twins have completely different brains. Moreover, the brain is a social organ, which means that it is also shaped by social interactions and not just by genes.

Why did humans evolve such a huge organ?

This may have been an accident caused by dietary change. At some point, our ancestors started cooking. All of a sudden, they were able to survive with such a large brain. They could not have powered the organ and have met its energy demand before.

No two brains are the same—is this a disadvantage or rather good luck?

I tend to see it as a chance, but am also aware of its radical overload. You can see this in children up to the age of 3: They have not yet developed a so-called theory of mind, meaning they assume that other people know and feel exactly the same as they do. Theory of mind, which we develop at the age of 3 to 4, is a lifelong process. Some neurodivergent people, including people on the autism spectrum, people with epilepsy, narcolepsy, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), start developing theory of mind later. Others regard them as having age-inappropriate problems. Their nonstandard nervous system can start a vicious circle of excluding these people, for example from education. This still happens, unfortunately. Therefore, we need the terms neurodivergence or neurodiversity to show how creating the same conditions for everyone is unfair. To give everyone a fair start, we must provide reasonable accommodations where necessary.

Why is this topic currently so prevalent?

I believe this is due to the development and use of AI, which make us reconsider intelligence. The latest Hattie Report, which showed that there are more important things than intelligence, certainly came as a shock to many people. It is considered the most important meta-analysis of education and identifies 138 factors that influence student achievement. In second place, according to the study, is cognitive development, meaning intelligence. Self-assessment, however, ranks first. Hence, the key factor for educational success is knowing what makes my brain tick. I am sure that no knowledge is more important today. This has also completely changed the role of educational institutions such as preschools, schools, and universities.

To what extent?

These are no longer places of knowledge, for the knowledge monopoly has been broken. We can access knowledge anytime and anywhere via the Internet. Nowadays, intelligence is all very well, but self-assessment is what really counts—in other words, knowing what I can do myself and when to ask for help. People really want to find out more about what makes them tick. And many people find it liberating that there is no constant need for masking if their neurotype diverges from the norm. The age of AI reinforces this by proving that intelligence is not a human privilege. Books have taken away our memory, AI is taking away our intelligence.

And what remains for us?

I would say: self-assessment. The society of the future will be a society with a control surplus. To paraphrase Lao-tzu: “Those who control others are powerful. And those who control themselves are invincible.” I believe that people are growing aware that they are left to their own devices more and start embracing self-interest. I believe this is a new form of human intelligence. The exclusion of neurodivergent people started with the printing press and is now coming to an end.

Does this development call for a different form of teaching in schools and universities?

Yes, absolutely. Even if lectures and seminars are still a popular format shared media are being added. In this third form, machine memory intelligence pushes in. Machines belong in schools and universities, but we need to take control of them, especially social media and AI. Neurodivergent people can make good use of their unique strengths here, because we need people with special interests who look at things differently.

Are there any studies on how many people are neurodivergent?

There are rough assumptions that every seventh person is neurodivergent. But you can only guess.

Are educational institutions prepared to respond to these people?

No, they are often rather overwhelmed. The Generation Z in particular wants to participate and help shape things, openly exchange ideas, and include everyone. I think this is a positive development. Students today are more considerate, a new way of working together is emerging—at least in my experience at our University. The academic arena usually helps anticipate where society as a whole is heading next.

What are your ideal educational institutions of the future?

More neuro-inclusive, meaning educational institutions that are prepared for people with ADHD, people on the autism spectrum, with epilepsy, with Tourette’s syndrome and that provide needs-based reasonable accommodations. More research is needed to show that reasonable accommodations, such as longer processing times for exams work, are effective. In the case of deaf students, for example, sign language interpreters provide helpful solutions. Nonetheless, neurodivergent people are often left out here.

What is the connection between intelligence and neurodivergence?

Neurodivergence impacts attention. Attention hinges on genes and intelligence. Neurodivergent people are not less intelligent, they are just not offered appropriate and accessible intelligence assessments. What we call mental or learning disability often has completely different causes. We often do not see beneath the surface.

What specific aspects are you researching?

I am particularly interested in the attention span of people on the autism spectrum. We have successfully completed the first related doctoral dissertation, with 2 more to follow. But we are already looking at how the brain’s 3 attention systems are connected to neurodivergence. The alerting attention network, which is located in the brain stem, controls alertness. This is often very active in people on the autism spectrum, making it difficult for them to deal with surprises. The reverse is true for people with ADHD who rather suffer from stress of monotony and tire easily if things get too repetitive. They are therefore often described as open to stimuli.